Learning with Hypertext Learning Environments:
Theory, Design and Research
(1995) Jacobson M, Maouri C, Mishra P and Cohlar C.
JI of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia 4(4), 321-364.
Guided TCC - Learner selected TCC
These two hypertext treatments
differed primarily in terms of the modelling and the
scaffolding they provided and the
degree of learner control.
Guided TCC
Students
- who were assigned to the guided TCC hypertext group and
- who regarded learning as an active process of constructing
were found to perform at a significantly higher level
on a knowledge synthesis task of near transfer than
- students in the other treatment groups or
- students with a simpler set of epistemic beliefs.
Results
Students need explicit modelling and
scaffolding support
in order to learn complex knowledge from a CASE-BASED, CONCEPTUALLY-INDEXED
hypertext learning environment.
Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CF)
Proposes complex knowledge may be BETTER LEARNED for flexible application
in new contexts by employing
case-based learning environmentswith features
such as:
- multiple knowledge representations
- link abstract concepts in cases (Knowledge-in-use)
- demonstrate the conceptual interconnectedness
- emphasize knowledge assembly than reproductive memory
- introduce conceptual and domain complexity EARLY
- promote active student learning
Situated Action Theory (SA)
It is a view of human cognitive processing as being fundamentally situated in
contexts of activity.
Cognitive apprentiship:
- modelling the knowledge in an authentic activity
- support students through scaffolding or coaching
- allow students to articulate their knowledge
(confront ineffective strategies and misconceptions)
- gradually fade or withdraw support.
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A Theory of Algebra-World Problem.
Comprehension and It's Implications for the
Design of Learning Environments
(1992) Nathan M and Kintch W. and Young E.
Cognition and Instruction 9(4), 329-389. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
To comprehend a problem, the student must make a
correspodence between the formal equations and the student's
own informal understanding of the situation described in the problem.
In solving word arithmetic or word algebra problems, errors made by students
can be viewed as failures to produce the intended mental representations and failures to relate the situation described in the problem
statement to the formal expressions needed to produce a quantitative solution.
Conlusion:
By using an environment that gives equations
situation-based meaning through
computer animation, students learn to
relate formal expressions to the referent situations. The graphic
network representation reduces students' memory load by constraining the sort
of information that is to be considered.
Situation model: representation for events. -
Problem model : formal relations in mind.
Feedback
To encourage active participation by the student in the construction of the
network and evaluation of the animation the tutor provides:
- Visual feedback: animation and button-based interface
- Auditory feedback: audio for animation
- Problem-model feedback: equation palette
- Situation-level feedback: animation of the clock, the ruler etc.
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Evidence for Cognitive Load Theory
(1991) Sweller J. and Chandler P.
Cognition and Instruction
8(4), 351-362. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
In cognition and instruction, we do not have the luxury of choosing between
various goals. There can be only one ultimate goal:
the generation of new, useful instructional techniques.
Schema theory (Constructivist Theories): Humans must restructure information in order to represent it.
NOVICES solve problems using means-ends analysis,
whereas EXPERTS use previously acquired schemas. To acquire a schema, one
needs only to learn to classify problem states according to their
appropriate moves.
Cognitive load theory: preventing students from using a means-ends
strategy and encouraging them to attend to problem states and their associated
moves should reduce extraneous cognitive load and so facilitate schema
acquisition. In general, instructional techniques should attempt to reduce
extraneaous cognitive load associated with constructing a representation
because this facilitates learning.
Goal-Free effect
- learning was enhanced
- cognitive load was reduced
- acquisition time was reduced
- superior performance on test problems
Worked Example effect
- eliminates the use of means-ends analysis
- focuses on problem states and their associated moves
- cognitive load was reduced
- acquisition time was reduced
- superior performance on test problems
all worked examples are effective, and ineffective
worked examples may be no better than solving problems by means-ends analysis.
Criterion for effectiveness is the cognitive load.
Split-Attention effect
Eliminating this effect by physically integrating the disparate sources of
information resulted in the reintroduction of the worked example effect.
It has a similar beneficial effect on all
types of instruction.
Redundancy effect
If redundant sources of information are integrated, the effects are
negative rather than positive because this imposes
an extraneous cognitive load that is lifted if the material is eliminated.
- Summaries of materials taken from textbooks were consistently
superior to the full text. (Reder & Anderson)
- A computer manual is more effective if it is replaced by a
"minimal manual" that eliminates redundant material.
(Carrol, Smith-Kerker, Ford)
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Multimedia learning:
Are We Asking the Right Questions?
(1997) Mayer E. Richard
Educational Psychologist 32(1), 1-19. Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Generative theory
Meaningful learning occurs when learners:
- select relevant information from what is presented
(--> short-term memory)
- organize pieces of information into a coherent mental
representation (--> cause-and-effect chain)
- integrate newly constructed information with others
(--> one-to-one mapping and causal relations).
Dual Coding theory
Above cognitive processes occur within two separate
information processing systems:
- a visual system for processing visual knowledge
- a verbal system for processing verbal knowledge
Multimedia effect
There is strong evidence that
adding a visual explanation to a verbal,
one can greatly enhance student understanding, as measured by tests of
problem-solving transfer.
Contiguity effects
Learners perform better when verbal and visual explanations are coordinated.
- For narration & animation: learners are best able to
build connections between verbal & visual representations when
corresponding components of the VERBALLY BASED MODEL and VISUALLY
BASED MODEL are in short-term memory at the same
time.
- For text & illustrations : learners perform better when
they receive coordinated presentation of
text and illustrations.
Interaction effects
Multimedia effects and Contiguity effects are strong for:
- low prior knowledge and
- high spatial ability
learners.
Split-Attention effects
Animation with narration is more effective
than Animation with text.
Summary
Contiguous presentation of visual and verbal material may be most important
- WHEN the material is a cause-and-effect explanation of a
simple system, and
- WHEN the learners are inexperienced and
- WHEN the goal is meaningful learning.
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Formats de présentation et complémentarité modale dans les logiciels éducatifs
(1998) Francoise Poyet
Sciences et techniques éducatives Volume 5 - no3, 245-262.
Orientations de recherche
Ergonomie - L'analyse du concept de charge mentale se fait à partir de deux critères essentiels:
- la contrainte désigne un facteur ou un groupe de facteurs
externes à la tache elle-même
- le coût est évalué par le niveau
d'exigence qui indique une variable charactéristique de la
performance attendue ou une norme de production.
Psychologie - Limites des capacités de
maintien et de traitement du sujet:
- le sujet disposerait d'un espace de traitement dont la capacité
est à peu près la même pour tout le monde,
- plus l'espace est utilisé par le traitement et moins celui-ci
est disponible pour les activités de maintien,
- Pour certaines, cette limite serait liée à la
taille de la mémoire de travail et serait de l'ordre de
7±2 informations et pour d'autres, elle correspond
à un seuil de 3 à 5 items rappelés par le sujet
à partir d'une longe série.
Charge mentale et mémoire de travail
L'administrateur, la boucle
phonologique et le système visuo-spatial
interviennent différemment dans le traitement et le maintien des
informations en mémoire de travail:
- l'administrateur joue un rôle de supervision des
opérations de maintien et de traitement de l'information,
- la boucle phonologique (BP) est spécialisée
dans le traitement du matériel verbal (texte écrit ou
oral),
- le système visuo-spatial (VSSP) gère
temporairement les informations de nature visuelle et spatiale
d'une manière complémentaire à la boucle
phonologique.
Charge mentale et format de présentation - Résultats
L'influence de la modalité sensorielle (visuelle ou auditive) sur la
mémorisation d'informations verbales (labels et explications)
insérées dans un schéma technique complexe diffère
selon le contenu des messages:
- des messages longs et détaillés (explications
techniques) seront mieux mémorisés dans un
FORMAT VISUEL,
- des informations courtes (noms, labels) présentées
en FORMAT AUDITIF amélioreront
l'intégration de messages visuels complexes (explications
portant sur le fonctionnement du dispositif à mémoriser).
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Anchored Instruction
John Bransford & the CTGV
It is a major paradigm for technology-based learning. The initial focus of
the work was on the development of interactive videodisc tools that encourage
students and teachers to pose and solve complex realistic problems.
The video materials served as anchors for
subsequent learning and instruction. Anchors were stories to be explored.
Anchored Instruction is closely related to :
- Situated learning and
- Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CF)
Application:
- elementary reading
- language arts
- mathematical skills
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© Vivian Synteta (15/02/99) updated 08/03/99
synteta8@etu.unige.ch